9 Tips to Avoid Grammar Goofs in Your PA School Essay

Did you spot my grammar goof? If not take a second look at the title. You have spent days, weeks, and months writing and perfecting your personal (not personel) statement. You have slaved countless hours in front of the computer screen trying to shed a creative light on your background and highlight your experiences. Dont overlook the most common and possibly most devastating mistakes many applicants make when submitting their personal statement. Spelling and grammar mistakes make us look careless and illiterate. Neither of these are favorable aspects of a PA school applicant. To maximize your chances of receiving a precious interview spot you are going to want to do everything in your power to avoid them. Today I am going to give you nine simple steps to avoid these silly goofs and make sure your personal statement is flawless. 1. Dont trust yourspell checker A spellchecker is probably one of the best innovations to come out of the 21st century, but it doesn't catch all spelling mistakes. To spot typos, read your text backward or ask someone else to proofread your text. Use Grammarly, which offers a feature-packed set of spell-check and proofreading options in their free web app. They also have a Microsoft Word plugin that will take your spellcheck to the next level. Download and install this medical dictionary for MS Word.It was built with love by a medical transcriptionist, and he gives it away for free! Write like Hemingway:The author and journalist, Ernest Hemingway, was the master of simple language.His writing is direct and lacks flowery prose. This makes it an ideal model forwriting a winning PA School Personal Statement.With this in mind, one of the most useful tools for aiding and improving writing is the Hemingway App. 2. Know how to write physician assistant (window["TotalPollAsync"] = window["TotalPollAsync"] || []).push({id:"15906", container:"totalpoll-async-5e09e9371efdf"}); You would be amazed how many people get this wrong! Don't make the same mistake (click here) We have reviewed 100's of essays through our personal statement editing service. Not a day goes by where we don't see these three typical "PA specific" writing mistakes. According tooneadmissions director, we interviewed making just one of these errors will land your personal statement in the trash bin - ouch! It is PAs, not PAs - Trust me, the managing editor ofthe AAPA wrote me personally and corrected me on this one! It is physician assistant, not physician's assistant The words physician assistant are not capitalized unless it's part of a name and precedes the name: Here is an example Physician Assistant John Smith has been in medicine for ten years - This is capitalized because it is part of a name (Physician Assistant John Smith) and it proceeds the name. If the word physician assistant (notice I didn't capitalize physician assistant) follows the name as in this example: John Smith, a physician assistant, drinks a lot of coffee, it is not capitalized. Consider creating your own proofreading checklist which includes a list of the types of mistakes you commonly make. Refer to this list each time you proofread. 3. Proofread on paper Take the time to print out your final draft on paper. You, and those who you have reading your essay are less likely to skim the text and miss errors. 4. Read your essay aloud This is a very simple yet commonly overlooked piece of advice that can make a big difference when it comes to editing your personal statement. Sit in a quiet room and read your essay aloud, record yourself reading your essay on your smartphone, rewrite the text where you stumble as you read aloud and listen to yourself read the essay, taking note of text that seems awkward, unnecessary or out of place. Another effective method is to have the computer read aloud for you. If you own a Mac, you can copy the text of your paper into a TextEdit file (found in Utilities or Applications). If you have a PC, you may have a reader installed, or check outNatural Reader for free. Instructions: Print out a copy of your paper, double spaced. You need a pen/pencil and highlighter. Prepare a text file that can be read by your voice software. Choose a voice you like if you have a choice. Listen to your paper as you follow along on the printed copy. Stop the program when you hear a problem and note it on your paper. Listen especially for: Grammar problems, notably missing endings or subject-verb agreement errors. Ideas that dont fit togetherfor example, sentences that jump around or dont seem to be in the right place. Repetition of words or dull repetitiveness. Sentences that dont make sense to you. Unnatural pauses, or lack of breaks, in the reading. This indicates you probably havent punctuated correctly. Words the program cant pronounce, which could indicate a misspelling. Wrong words. 5. Read your essay backwards This is a standard technique used by writers: read your essay backwards. We often become "blind" to our mistakes, seeing the correct word or grammar on the page when it isn't there. To break this pattern you can read your writing backwards, phrase by phrase, or word by word. This will help you see your text in a new way. 6.Make several passes for different types of errors Try checking spelling and end punctuation on one pass, grammar and internal punctuation on another, and format on yet another pass. Develop a system. If you are editing in Microsoft Word you can choose to turn formatting marks on or off. This will allow you to go carefully through your document looking for extra dots (spaces) or arrows (for tab characters) as well as returns and paragraph spacing. 7.Consider using an online service Invite someone else to proofread your text after you have reviewed it. A new set of eyes may immediately spot errors that you've overlooked. We provide a detailed proofread of your essay as part of our essay review service. Or, consider sending your personal statement to a service such aseangel which is a very inexpensive email proofreading service. 8.Check for logical order This is an enjoyable activity I have donewith clients as part of our essay collaborative. I'll describe it, but here is also a short video demonstrating the process. Take your personal statement and follow these instructions: Make a copy of it on your computer so you are working with a new version. At the end of every sentence, put a 'return' and leave a few spaces. Do this for your entire piece of writing. Adjust the size or spacing so you can see only two sentences on your screen. Read the sentences aloud. As a pair of sentences, do they work together? That is, does one sentence follow logically from the one before it? Now, scroll down, so you see your second sentence + third sentence only on the screen. Ask the same question: does one sentence lead to another? If it doesn't, add transitions, pronouns, or other information to make the two sentences work together. Do this process for your entire essay-yes, it's long and time-consuming, but you'll get faster at it. This exercise will help you with understanding organization, transitions, and how your writing works together, not just as a series of disconnected sentences. 9. Pay attention to last-minute changes If you do make a last-minute change to a few words, be sure to check the entire sentence or even paragraph over again. Many errors are the result of changes made without adjusting other, related words. I do this all the time! Make sure to check the entire document. Bonus Tip: Identify and write tothe admissions committee A good exercise is to create a profile of one or twoadmissions committee members and make it into a separate document. Go to Google image search and input "physician assistant school faculty" and grab one of those pictures. What does their profile look like? Are they middle-aged? Experienced administrators, teachers or a PA student? What are they looking for? Creativity, enthusiasm, knowledge of the PA professions, uniqueness? Once you have created an actual profile for your reader go ahead and re-read your essay. Does your reader understand it? Does she like it? Does it persuade him/her to take action and send you an invite to interview? Would you like some more great tips on writing your physician assistant personal statement? Check out our new book"How to write your physician assistant personal statement" which includes 12 interviews with some of the nation's top PA school faculty and admissions directors from across the country-It's available on Amazonfor instant download from the Kindle Store and also in paperback. Click here to read more about the PA school essay collaborative where you can get free advice on your personal statement or submit your essay for one-on-one help through our professional editing/proofreading service. View all posts in this seriesHow to Write the Perfect Physician Assistant School Application EssayThe Physician Assistant Essay and Personal Statement CollaborativeDo You Recognize These 7 Common Mistakes in Your Personal Statement?7 Essays in 7 Days: PA Personal Statement Workshop: Essay 1, A PA Changed My LifePA Personal Statement Workshop: Essay 2, I Want to Move Towards the Forefront of Patient CarePA Personal Statement Workshop: Essay 3, She Smiled, Said Gracias! and Gave me a Big HugPA Personal Statement Workshop: Essay 4, I Have Gained so Much Experience by Working With PatientsPA Personal Statement Workshop: Essay 5, Then Reach, my Son, and Lift Your People up With YouPA Personal Statement Workshop: Essay 6, That First Day in Surgery was the First Day of the Rest of my LifePA Personal Statement Workshop: Essay 7, I Want to Take People From Dying to Living, I Want to Get Them Down From the Cliff.Physician Assistant Personal Statement Workshop: To say I was an accident-prone ch ild is an understatement9 Simple Steps to Avoid Silly Spelling and Grammar Goofs in Your PA School Personel Statement5 Tips to Get you Started on Your Personal Essay (and why you should do it now)How to Write Your Physician Assistant Personal Statement The Book!How to Write Physician Assistant The PA Grammar Guide101 PA School Admissions Essays: The Book!5 Things Ive Learned Going Into My Fourth Physician Assistant Application Cycle7 Tips for Addressing Shortcomings in Your PA School Personal StatementThe #1 Mistake PRE-PAs Make on Their Personal StatementThe Ultimate PA School Personal Statement Starter KitThe Ultimate Guide to CASPA Character and Space Limits10 Questions Every PA School Personal Statement Must Answer5 PA School Essays That Got These Pre-PAs Accepted Into PA School7 Questions to Ask Yourself While Writing Your PA School Personal Statement101 PA School Applicants Answer: Whats Your Greatest Strength? You may also like -How to Write Physician Assistant The PA Grammar GuideDo you know the correct answer to these important questions? Do you capitalize the word physician assistant? How do you write the plural of physician assistant? What is the proper name of the PA profession? All these questions are []The Ultimate PA School Personal Statement Starter Kit If you are struggling to write your PA school personal narrative, then this message is for you. Here's why . . . PA school admissions teams have an uncanny ability (honed on the job) to detect when an applicant's essay rings []The #1 Mistake PRE-PAs Make on Their Personal Statement What's the #1 one mistake that potential PAs and pre-physician assistant students make while drafting their PA school personal statement? A failure to outline and plan! Outlining your personal statement is like following a []

How to Use Direct Object Pronouns in the Past Tense

In almost any language, pronouns play an important part in enabling fluid conversation, keeping us from repeating the same word over and over and sounding like this: Did you find the glasses? Where are the glasses? Oh, I saw the glasses earlier. Oh, I found the glasses. Let’s put the glasses on the table. Here we are discussing direct object pronouns: those that substitute nouns that answer to the questions who or what without the use of any preposition (not to whom, or for which, or to that). Hence, they are called direct; they substitute the object and link it directly to the verb. For example, I eat the sandwich: I eat it; I see the boys: I see them; I buy the glasses: I buy them; I read the book: I read it; I love Giulio: I love him. In English, when pronouns substitute nouns they do not alter or color the verb or other parts of speech; not even the word order changes. In Italian, however, they do. Here, we are going to look at direct object pronouns and how they interact with compound verb tenses such as the passato prossimo. Pronomi Diretti: Direct Object Pronouns To quickly refresh your memory, in Italian the direct object pronouns are: mi me ti you lo him or it (masculine singular) la her or it (feminine singular) ci us vi you (plural) li them (masculine plural) le them (feminine plural) As you see, the mi, ti, ci and vi stay the same regardless of gender (I see you; you see me; we see you; you see us), but the third person singular and plural—he, she, it, and them—have two genders: lo, la, li, le. For example, il libro (which is singular masculine) or a male person is substituted by the pronoun lo; la penna (singular feminine) or a female person by la; i libri (plural masculine) or plural male persons by i; le penne (plural feminine) or plural female persons by le. (Do not confuse pronouns with articles!) These pronouns require a bit of mental dexterity, but once your mind has become used to the process of automatically attaching gender and number to everything (because one must), it becomes automatic. Using Direct Object Pronouns in the Present In Italian, with verbs in the present tense the direct object pronoun precedes the verb, which is counterintuitive in English, but the verb itself stays the same. For example: Capisci me? Do you understand me? SÃ ¬, ti capisco. Yes, I understand you (you I understand).Leggi il libro? Do you read the book? SÃ ¬, lo leggo. Yes, I read it (it I read).Compri la casa? Are you buying the house? SÃ ¬, la compro. Yes, I am buying it (it I buy).Ci vedete? Do you see us? SÃ ¬, vi vedo. Yes, I see you (you I see).Leggete i libri? Do you read the books? SÃ ¬, li leggiamo. Yes, I we read them (them we read).Comprate le case? Are you buying the houses? SÃ ¬, le compriamo. Yes, we are buying them (them we buy). In the negative, you place the negation before the pronoun and the verb: No, non lo vedo. Passato Prossimo: Agreement of the Past Participle In a construction with direct object pronouns in a compound tense such as the passato prossimo—any tense with the past participle—the past participle acts like an adjective and must be modified to suit the gender and number of the object. So, you choose your pronoun, going through the same assessment of whether the object is feminine or masculine, singular or plural; then you quickly modify your past participle to agree accordingly as if it were an adjective. Remember that we are talking about direct objects here: objects that are in a direct relation to a transitive verb, which has an object and uses avere as the auxiliary (in the case of reflexive verbs and other intransitive verbs with essere as auxiliary, the past participle modifies but for different reasons and thats a topic for another day). Let’s take a look at what happens with the pronoun and the past participle in an example in the passato prossimo. Lets use a question since questions are natural constructions for pronouns: Avete visto Teresa? Did you see Teresa, or have you seen Teresa? We want to answer that, yes, we saw her yesterday at the market. Immediately you determine the following: The past participle of vedere: vistoThe correct passato prossimo conjugation: abbiamo vistoThe object: Teresa, feminine singularThe corresponding direct object pronoun for Teresa: la Your past participle is quickly made feminine and singular; your direct object pronoun moves to the beginning of the sentence, before the verb, and you get your answer: La abbiamo vista al mercato ieri. If you want to answer in the negative—no, we have not seen her—you put your negation before both the pronoun and the verb, but the same rules follow: No, non la abbiamo vista. When using the third person singular and third person plural direct object pronouns, the past participle must respect gender and number (with ti, for example, it can stay the same—visto/a—and with vi too— visto/i). Both in writing and in speaking, the third person singular pronuns la and lo can be contracted if followed by a vowel or h: lho vista; labbiamo vista; lavete vista. You do not contract the plural pronouns. Lets Practice: Facciamo Pratica Lets go through the steps with another couple of examples: Dove hai comprato i tuoi pantaloni? Where did you buy your pants? You want to answer that you bought them in America last year. Again, you identify your needed pieces of information: The past participle of comprare: compratoThe correct verb conjugation: ho compratoThe object: pantaloni, masculine pluralThe correct direct object pronoun for pantaloni: li Adjusting your past participle accordingly and moving your pronoun, you find your answer: Li ho comprati in America lanno scorso. Again: I bambini hanno ricevuto le lettere? Did the children get the letters? We want to answer that, yes, they received them. The past participle of ricevere: ricevutoThe correct verb conjugation: hanno ricevutoThe object: le lettere, feminine pluralThe correct direct object pronoun for lettere: le Adjusting the past participle for gender and number, your answer is: SÃ ¬, le hanno ricevute. Or, in the negative, No, non le hanno ricevute. Remember, you do not contract the plural pronouns. Other Compound Tenses In other compound tenses in any of the verb modes, the pronominal construction works the same way. Lets make the sentence above indicative trapassato prossimo: I bambini non avevano ricevuto le lettere? Hadnt the children received the letters? You want to answer that yes, they had received them but they lost them. Perdere also is transitive and its participle is perse (or perdute); your direct object pronoun is still le. You make your new past participle agree, and move your pronoun, and you have your answer: SÃ ¬, le avevano ricevute ma le hanno perse. Lets look at a variation of the same sentence in the congiuntivo trapassato: La mamma sperava che i bambini avessero ricevuto le lettere. Mother had hoped that the children had received the letters. You want to answer that, yes, they received them and they read them, but then they lost them. Your object is still the same lettere; all the verbs involved are transitive (with the addition now of the past participle of leggere, letto) and your direct object pronoun is still le. You move your pronoun and you modify your past participles and you have your answer: SÃ ¬, le avevano ricevute e le hanno lette, ma le hanno perse. Direct Object Pronouns and Infinitives Note that in pronominal constructions that use the infinitive together with helping verbs volere, dovere, and potere, but also with other so-called servile verbs such as sapere, andare, venire, cercare, sperare, and riuscire, the direct object pronoun goes before either of the verbs OR can be attached as a suffix to the infinitive (minus the final e). Voglio comprare la frutta: la voglio comprare or voglio comprarla (I want to buy fruit: I want to buy it).Veniamo a prendere i bambini: li veniamo a prendere or veniamo a prenderli (we are coming to get the children: we are coming to get them).Vado a trovare il nonno: lo vado a trovare or vado a trovarlo (I am going to visit Grandfather: I am going to visit him).Cerco di vedere i miei nipoti domani: li cerco di vedere domani or cerco di vederli domani (I will try to see my nephews tomorrow: I will try to see them).Vorrei salutare mio figlio: lo vorrei salutare or vorrei salutarlo (I would like to say hello to my son: I would like to say hello to him). Direct or Indirect Only transitive verbs in Italian are followed by direct objects, though there are some subtle exceptions, such as piangere (to cry), vivere (to live), and piovere (to rain), which are intransitive but have an implicit object. However, transitive verbs may also have indirect objects (or both), and they do not necessarily match from English to Italian. In English, you say hello to someone and it gets a preposition; in Italian, salutare (to say hello) is transitive, uses no preposition, and therefore gets a direct object and a direct object pronoun. In English you call someone (direct); in Italian you call to someone (and telefonare is, in fact, intransitive). A word of advice: When thinking about Italian pronouns in relation to verbs, it is helpful to not compare how things work in English. Buon lavoro!

Health Insurance and Accountability Act - 807 Words

The HIPAA (Health Insurance and Accountability Act) was designed to safeguard the privacy of medical records. It contains specific guidelines for medical personnel as how to handle and maintain the patient’s medical information. (http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy/hipaa/ understanding/consumers/consumer_summary.pdf) Health care providers are required to provide the patient with a notice of privacy document. â€Å"The HIPAA Privacy Rule provides protection of health care information, for consumers by the federal government, held by health care facilities.† (http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy/hipaa/ understanding/index.html). The privacy notice includes information on how to gain access to your medical records and how to get copies. In addition,†¦show more content†¦Based on the above information not all information may be under the patient’s control. The privacy policies that health care facilities provide their patients and customers are designed to inform them about that particular facilities privacy practices. With my interview at Walgreens with Will Almond, the Pharmacist, he explained. â€Å"We are required to provide a Notice of Privacy Practices to every customer.† I was promptly provided with a notice of privacy practices document (effective date as of April 13, 2006). It states, Walgreens is required by law to provide you with a privacy notice that explains they’re legal duty and privacy practices in regard to protected health information. It also describes how to access your information and how your medical information is used and disclosed. In addition, information on filing a complaint if you think your private information may have been violated. As a cautionary note, certain entities that exist may not require a privacy notice, so it may be prudent to ask if you have any uncertainty as to the privacy of your medical information. Employees in a healthcare facility or related are required to be trained in the proper handling of the patient’s medical information. According to the U.S. Department of Health Human Services Office for Civil Rights â€Å"Providers and health insurers who are requiredShow MoreRelatedThe Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Essay1704 Words   |  7 PagesThe Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, most commonly known as HIPAA, was passed by Congress and signed by President Bill Clinton on August 21, 1996. The purpose of this act was to regulate the privacy of patient health information, lower the cost of health care, as well as to help fix the many pieces of our complicated healthcare system. When switching employers or possibly losing employment, HIPAA secures individuals their health insurance. HIPAA nearly affects all individualsRead MoreThe Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act890 Words   |  4 Pagesinformation. The Health In surance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) is Protected Health Information (PHI) that: Relates to a person’s physical or mental health, the provision of health care, or the payment for health care. Identifies the person who is the subject of the information. Is created or received by a covered entity Is transmitted or maintained in any form (paper, electronic, or oral) There are five major components to the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) PrivacyRead MoreThe Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act946 Words   |  4 Pagesour own health information, but how is this beneficial to us as patients and healthcare providers? As healthcare is increasingly becoming complex what are ways to enforce these policies and rules? HIPAA rules and standards will need to be the same in each state so there is interoperability the proper way, but will we be able to really accomplish this? This paper will discuss these aspects and ways to overcome these obstacles that are occurring. What is HIPAA? HIPAA also known as the Health InsuranceRead MoreThe Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act1416 Words   |  6 PagesHistory The history of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, or HIPPA, began in 1996 when a legal mandate was issue by Congress to protect the ethical principles and confidentiality of patient information (Burkhardt Nathaniel, 2014). Prior to this legislation, employees were not protected between jobs. Waste, fraud and abuse in health insurance and healthcare delivery was prevalent. The need to protect the rights of the patient was needed but also the Act contained passages to promoteRead MoreHealth Insurance Portability And Accountability Act1253 Words   |  6 Pagesgiving information to the healthcare professional and motivates the patient to seek health care when needed (Jessica De Bord, Burke, MD PhD, Dudzinski, PhD MTS, 2013). In 1996, Congress passed an act that enforces the patient’s right to information confidentiality. The act was named, Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, or for short â€Å"HIPAA†. Not only does HIPAA regulate the protection of patient’s health information, but they work to reduce healthcare fraud and abuse, mandate standardsRead MoreHealth Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Essay1382 Words   |  6 Pages Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act Final Research Paper Dominique Bracco Healthcare Today (300) Professor Diana December 7, 2016 â€Æ' Abstract The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) is divided into five titles. Title I is health insurance portability, Title II is administrative simplification, Title III is medical savings accounts and health insurance tax related provisions, Title IV is enforcement of group health plan provisions, and title V is revenueRead MoreThe Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act1609 Words   |  7 PagesIt has always been the job of health care providers to maintain doctor-patient confidentiality. Not only is it a legal obligation it is also an ethical obligation to many doctors, nurses, physician’s assistants and many other medical staff. Until recently medical records were primarily recorded on paper and stored in cabinets and locked in what was believed as a secure room. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act also known as HIPAA, was passed on August 21, 1996. Although the lawRead MoreHealth Insurance Portability And Accountability A ct1914 Words   |  8 Pageshave always and will always be behind criminal acts, and new laws are put in place to tackle the every changing technological advancement. Law Review Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) required the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to develop regulations protecting the privacy and security of certain health information. To fulfill this requirement, HHS publishedRead MoreThe Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Essay1267 Words   |  6 PagesAbstract The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) is divided into five titles. Title I is health insurance portability, title II is administrative simplification, title III is medical savings accounts and health insurance tax related provisions, title IV is enforcement of group health plan provisions, and title V is revenue offsets. HIPAA affects many features of health care, including providing the privacy rights of patients for release of financial and medical informationRead MoreThe Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act817 Words   |  4 Pagesresearch on the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPPA). Enacted by Congress in 1996, HIPPA was created to â€Å"modernize health information exchange† (Solove, 2013). For the consumer, HIPPA sets rules which protect the privacy of health information, to be followed by health care providers and insurance companies. It also gives consumers rights over their health information, such as obtaining a copy, making sure it is accurate, and to know who is or has seen their health information

The Effects Of Slavery On American Culture - 903 Words

In today’s society, many negative connotations of slavery are perpetuated in American culture. Some of the most popular stereotypes are the content slaves which are manifested in the Sambo and Mammy figure. Other slaves formed bonds of resistance against slavery through the invisible institution of religion. As more slaves came to America, white slave owners decided to divide the labor. Development of slavery expanded beyond plantations to rural, urban, and university settings typically in the southern region of the United States. Urban slavery grew at a lower rate compared to rural slavery, due to the southern regions reliance on agriculture and the lack of industrialization. Even though urban and university slaves were considered to have it better than rural slaves, they still did not have power since they still had to adhere to the rules of slave owners. Rural slavery was mostly executed through gang labor and the task system (Lecture 3). In gang labor, which is most often depicted in documentaries and movies about slavery such as Roots, it shows slaves working in the fields from sun up to sun down with only an afternoon break. Slaves usually worked in small groups, undoubtingly divided by age groups and physical strength, under the power of the overseer who would keep all of the slaves working at the same pace to maintain and increase production. In the task system, a system that existed before the antebellum period, allowed slaves to work on an assigned task and useShow MoreRelatedLasting Effects Slavery Has Had on African American Culture Essay766 Words   |  4 PagesDuring the colonial period early American settlers came up with the idea to bring African natives overseas to America and use them as slaves. The white man was higher up than the black man in society at the time because of the color of his skin. Americans consider this the biggest blight on our history. The shame of this period in our history still continues today for many whites, bu t many blacks still feel angry and oppressed. With the election of our first black president, we are really showingRead MoreThe Issue Of Black Slavery906 Words   |  4 PagesThe issue of black slavery has been a thorny issue in the American society for so many years. The history of black slavery dates back to the time after the United States attained its independence and continued until just before the American civil war. Black slavery was made possible by the American constitution that made it legal for the white people to own black slaves. Slave trade ensured a constant supply of slaves from the African continent with the most affected part being West Africa. HenceRead MoreSlavery And Its Impact On The United States986 Words   |  4 PagesSlavery dates back to as early as 1760 BC. It is defined as the condition of a slave; in bondage. A slave is a person who is the property of and wholly subject to another; a bond servant. It fiendishly raised its repugnant head amongst many c ultures and nations around the world. Many people viewed slavery as immoral and some viewed it as a necessary evil. However evil, it may have been, it did have a tremendous impact on shaping the United States, particularly the South. From the period of 1800 toRead MoreAmerican Institutional And Intellectual Life Essay1455 Words   |  6 PagesThe issue of slavery in the United States has been hotly debated for centuries. Historians continuously squabble over the causes and effects of America’s capitalistic, industrial form of slavery. But two of the most heavily discussed questions are whether the institution of slavery destroyed African culture in America, and whether it reduced slaves to a child-like state of dependency and incompetence. 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The Americans, just like many other cultures, have used immoral techniques for the benefit and prosperity of themselves and their dawning country. They stole the lives of millions in order to keep their lives intact. Americans captured Africans and traded them in the colonies, and tormented them in orderRead MoreRacism And Racism1404 Words   |  6 PagesBeginning from the Western slavery, caused and created mostly for economics reasons, racism consequentially was promoted through law and social institutions. Using various means of dehumanization, marginalization of African Americans, and creating and legitimizing their image as a lower race, racism has been cultivated in society for hundreds of years. Gradually racism and racial stereotypes were woven into language, science, wide social opinion. The biological interpretation of the race has dividedRead MoreCharles Dubois Souls Of Black Folk Essay1496 Words   |  6 Pagesof African Americans in this country. The familial structures, sexual habits, and participation in economic markets of these young women are rooted in the historical mental and social scars of American slavery and the post Emancipation practice of sharecropping. WEB DuBois’ Souls of Black Folk is an anthropological study of African Americans published in 1903, fifty years after slavery. His writings are applicable to the current situation of these young women and other African Americans of the sameRead MoreAfrican Americans And Identity Of African American1169 Words   |  5 PagesIn the year of 1619, the largest oppressive legal structure in American History came about, the institution of slavery. Although slavery was abolished in the year of 1865, African Americans are still enslaved by intuitional racism. There are systems in place to keep minorities at a disadvantage. This system of oppression is carried by a number of factors such as; the segregation of black people in urban areas referred to as ghettos, mass incarceration rate for people of color, large educational gapsRead MoreMajor Themes Of Us History During Slavery Essay1607 Words   |  7 Pages Major Themes of US History During Slavery During creation, God made man and gave him the free will to do and act according to as he pleases as long as it is in agreement with His teachings. Fellow human beings could not have control over their fellow men because it was against God’s will. A state whereby one person has absolute power over another and controls his life, liberty, and fortune is known as slavery. The history of slavery dates back to creation times where the Israelites were taken as

The Id, Ego, and Super-Ego in T.S. Eliot’s The Love Song...

T.S. Eliot’s poem â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock† is inhabited by both a richly developed world and character and one is able to categorize the spaces in â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock† to correspond to Prufrock’s mind. Eliot uses the architecture of the three locations described in the text to explore parts of Prufrocks mind in the Freudian categories of id, ego, and super-ego; the city that is described becomes the Ego, the room where he encounters women his Id and the imagined ocean spaces his Super Ego. Eliot is vague in his suggestion of Prufrock’s audience, only referring to the listener once using â€Å"you and I;†(1) however, by analyzing Eliot’s intertextual inclusion of the passage from Dante’s Inferno and Prufock’s†¦show more content†¦These issues- the introversion, the self degradation- are joined by a myriad of other psychological disturbances that are all derived from inabilit y to fulfill sexual desire. The poem becomes an introspective examining of the faults in the mind of a man. By including the quote from Dantes Inferno, and creating a character that is so introverted Eliot suggests that Prufrock is examining his own mind and delving into the most delicate of problems. If one applies the Freudian concepts of id, ego, and super ego to Prufrock’s troubled mind, a clear delineation of three sections is made in the poem. A short explanation of id ego and super ego is necessary in connecting them to the spaces in the text. Freud’s theory stemmed from a need to classify the parts of the ‘mind’. From this stems the organization of personality into three parts all of which are demonstrated in the â€Å"Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock†. The id is the impulsively and instinctually driven section of Freud’s personality complex and is based on seeking pleasure. An especially important factor for â€Å"Prufrock† is that the id encompasses is sexual desire. It is largely accountable for the unconscious mind. The ego is the most rationalized and outward facing of the personalities that creates a practical approach in

America’s Foundation Free Essays

The United States Declaration of Independence written by Thomas Jefferson was a statement that was used on July 4, 1776 by the Continental Congress to declare the independence of thirteen American colonies from Britain. It entailed in part the following; political independence of every person as provided by natural law, right of revolution. By this, it implied that all Americans were entitled to equal rights and in cases where these rights were breached, anyone was entitled to revolt against the aggressor. We will write a custom essay sample on America’s Foundation or any similar topic only for you Order Now Another part of the declaration was a list of charges against king George who was seen as having dishonored the rights of colonialist therefore was seen as unfit to govern. Lastly, the declaration stipulated conditions under which people could change their government and Britain situation offered a perfect example. Hence it called on to all colonies to throw off British Crown and claim their independence (Library of Congress, 1861, 865). The article of Confederation The article of Confederation was the first governing constitution of America. The article sought to unite several States in America that were initially sovereign under the British regime. It was made in drafts with the last draft made in 1977 and adopted by Continental Congress on November 15, 1977. The article stipulated the rules and regulation to govern the new found United States confederation. Hence with the Article, United States was capable of making wars and settling interstates dispute diplomatically. Furthermore, United States was able to resolve issues concerning western territories. The articles were created with a view of providing freedom, Sovereignty and independence of America. With time, it was found that these articles were unable to provide sufficient provisions that would govern the country effectively hence a need for a detailed constitution that would replace the Confederation with the Federal. This paved way for the formation of a constitution in 1788 (Jensen, 1970, p 109). The constitution The constitution is the current governing body of law in United States of America. It is the supreme law of United States and is the source of legal authority fundamental to the existence of America and all its administrative and judicial bodies within it. It defines three arms of the government; the legislative led by Congress, an executive branch led by the President and judicial branch led by Supreme Court. In its description, it stipulates each branch powers that helps eliminate conflict of power during implementation. In addition, it established the federal system of government that gave individual states various rights. It was adopted on September 17, 1789 and has so far undergone twenty seven amendments (Hickey, 1853, 483) Comparison and Contrast between Articles of Confederation, Constitution and Declaration of Independence. There are various similarities and differences in the Declaration, Articles of Confederation and the Constitution. In comparison, all the above three documents sought to provide the sovereignty and independence of United States of America. They stipulated that US was a sovereign state that was capable of making laws, negotiating diplomatic relations and setting up its own army. America, therefore, was free to trade and govern itself under its own laws without any external interference. All three document emphasized on basic human right. This was stipulated through the provision for freedom of movement and expression in the constitution and the Article of Confederation. Equality and sovereignty of each state was also equally stipulated in three documents. Above all, the document stipulated the rules and regulation that would hence fourth govern United States of America. Breach of which would lead to prosecution and there after a punishment. Similarity among the documents can also be seen in their way of formation where by; representatives from various states were chosen to draft them and later sign on the document to authenticate them. In this sense, all the above three document are similar. Contrasts Among the notable differences are in levying taxes. In Articles of Confederation, Congress could only request various states to pay taxes but looking into the constitution, Congress has the right to levy taxes on individuals. On the Executive side, the Constitution provides the president with powers to choose cabinet members and has power to check on the powers of judiciary and legislature, however, the article provided the president with no executive powers and his role was only to preside over the Congress. On amending the constitution, two thirds of both houses of congress and three quarter of senate legislature are needed to amend the constitution under the provision of the current constitution compared to thirteen out of thirteen as provided by the Article. With the Article, it recommended that sovereignty remained within States however; the constitution states that it is the supreme law of the land hence sovereignty applies within the range of constitution. Regarding trade, Article provided no control of trade within states and no regulation what so ever was done between interstate trades. This implied that there was free movement of goods and services within states without government interference. However, constitution provides for regulation of trades between states and the power is bestowed to the Congress which oversees all these regulations. In formation of an army to provide military support, Article of Confederation awarded no right to the congress to draft troops that would participate in war. Hence, they had to rely on military contribution by various states. In the Constitution, Congress has the power to raise an army that would deal with any military emergency in the country. In conclusion, it can be asserted that without these three documents in US history, the legality of United States of America could be at stake and therefore, it would have become difficult to govern all the states under one government. References Faber H. , Faber, Doris. (1987). We the People: The Story of the United States Constitution since 1787. New York: Scribner’s. Hickey, W. (1853). The Constitution of the United States of America: With an Alphabetical Analysis; the Declaration of Independence †¦ Electoral Votes for All the Presidents and Vice-presidents: the High Authorities and Civil Officers of Government from March 4, 1789, to March 3. T. K. P. G. Collins . pp 483. Jensen M. (1970). The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-constitutional History of the American Revolution 1774-1781. University of Wisconsin Press. Library of Congress (1861). Catalogue of the Library of Congress. Oxford University. Pp 865. Suksi M. (1993). Bringing in the People: A Comparison of Constitutional Forms and Practices of the Referendum. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. US History. Articles of Confederation Vs the Constitution. http://home. earthlink. net/~gfeldmeth/chart. art Accessed on February 26, 2009. How to cite America’s Foundation, Papers

Basic Business Statistics Population Data

Question: Discuss about theBasic Business Statisticsfor Population Data. Answer: Introduction The world is a rapidly changing environment that brings new ideas, and population data with each day that passes. The things that people could only dream of in the past decades are now a living reality in todays world (Hair Jr. and Lukas, 2014). Advancements in companies, their daily business activities and functions have grown hundreds of times and are now more appealing to the consumers than they were a few years back. The same thing has happened with the human population in general. People are now more aware about the market and the consumer products, and their general behaviour is now quite comprehensive and highly demanding. This has forced businesses all over the world to institute necessary changes in order to meet market demands and satisfy consumer behaviours. Berenson et al. (2012) reports that businesses are taking much of their time in decision making since it is in their obligations to satisfy the demands of the consumers. Understanding consumer satisfaction is one of the most obvious challenges faced by business organisations. Others include launching of new products, pricing, competition, effective market research, predicting consumer behavior, et cetera.The need to handle such challenges is the reason behind organizations investing in market research (Levine, 1999; Burns and Burns, 2008; Zikmund et al., 2008). This paper gives a detailed analysis report of a market research process involving a taste test for a snack shop with two different snack flavours. The data set is described and analysed through statistical graphs and numerical summaries. Finally, a real life example of similar tests is given and the relevant market research questions. Description of the Data Set The essence of analysing and interpreting data is typically to give meaning to what would otherwise be a mere representation of values and numbers. Nonetheless, the importance of data statistics in business research is dependent on the clarity of the defined research survey question or the problem being surveyed (Kotz et al, 2012; Gentle et al., 2012; Bryman and Bell, 2015). This suggests that, the researcher needs to properly edit the data collected before analysing it so as to detect any errors in the early stages of statistical interpretation. This can be approached in a number of ways including consistency checks and other checks; and what the given data can or cannot achieve in the intended research. Therefore, it would be important to follow these guidelines in interpreting and analysing the given dataset of the snack food described in sample of 1000 survey data. Each hypothetical sample has 100 observations. In essence, there are five variables in this dataset (Murakami and Li vingstone, 2016). In the first variable, each person was given 2 versions of the product and was asked which version they preferred this variable was categorical. The second variable is on gender and is also categorical. The third variable wanted to know the test of each person with regard to the snack food and this was categorical as well. However, the fourth variable was numerical as it sought to know what each person would pay for the snack food. Similarly, the fifth variable is also numerical indicating the age of the participants as below 40 or above 40 years. Two other questions would include: How much does healthy snacking enter into your snacking decisions? Is there any other comment that you would like to include in addition to how you feel about the snack? Summary of the Data Set The following table and chart give a summary description of the variable how much they would pay: Minimum: O Maximum: 4.1 Count: 100 Mean: 2.6O2 Median: 3.1 Mode: 3 Standard Deviation: 1.1O8 Variance: 1.271 Mid-Range: 1.9 Quartiles: Quartiles: Q1 3 Q2 3.1 Q3 3.2 Comment: on average, people are willing to pay up to 2.602 an amount for the snack. With the standard deviation of 1.108 the snack can be sold up to a maximum of 4.1 but the best price is at 3.1 which would be fair to most of the participants. Summary Filter The filter includes the people that like the product and the appropriate numerical summaries for the follow variable Variable which version they prefer Variable how much they would pay? Row Labels Count of Which version is the best? Neither 5 version 1 2O version 2 25 Grand Total 5O Therefore the proportion of neither in equal to 5/5O=O.1; And the proportion that likes version 2 is equal to 25/5O=O.5 Comment: the snack is generally likeable and people would buy it. However, version too is higher preferred as compared to version one. Therefore, the business should have to produce more of version two and less of version one. Minimum: 2.9 Maximum: 4.1 Count 50 Mean: 3.1O42 Median: 3.1 Mode: 3 Standard Deviation: O.157 Quartiles: Quartiles: Q1 -- 3 Q2 -- 3.1 Q3 -- 3.2 Comment: the best price for the snack according to taste would land at 3.1, this is the value depicted as the mean value and median value most preferred by the participants for purchase. Graphical and numerical summaries relating the variable 2, 3 and 4 This section gives graphical and numerical summaries that describe the variables: Gender and do they like the product? Proportion of people that like the product Column Labels Row Labels like hate Grand Total male 68.00% 32.00% 100.00% female 72.00% 28.00% 100.00% Grand Total 70.00% 30.00% 100.00% count of people that like product Column Labels Row Labels like hate Grand Total male 34 16 50 female 36 14 50 Grand Total 70 30 100 Apparently, more females than males like the snack. However, the percentage representing those who like the product is way higher than those who do not like the snack. Therefore, it would be advisable to deliver the product to the market with the positive expectation that it will be bought at a profit. The variables how much they would pay? and gender For the MALES the summary of the amount they would pay is: Minimum: O Maximum: 4.1 Range: 4.1 Count: 6O Mean: 2.797 Median: 3.1 Mode: 3.2 Standard Deviation: O.9772 Quartiles: Quartiles: Q1 -- 3 Q2 -- 3.1 Q3 -- 3.2 For the FEMALES the summary of the amount they would pay is Minimum value: O Maximum: 3.5 Range: 3.5 Count: 4O Mean: 2.411 Median: 3.1 Mode: 3.3 Standard Deviation: 1.3O34 Quartiles: Quartiles: Q1 -- O.3 Q2 -- 3.1 Q3 -- 3.2 On average, the male gender is willing to pay more for the snack than the female gender. However, the median score is the same suggesting that the best price for selling the product at a profit would be the shared median amount of 3.1. Confidence intervals Excluding people that do not like the product, the 90% confidence interval for the proportion of people that prefer version 1 would be represented by: Mean +-1.96(SD/ sq. root of n) 20 +- 1.96 (0.157/7.07)= 20.044 or 19.956 Excluding people that do not like the product, the 90% confidence interval for the average amount they would pay for the males is: Mean +-1.96(SD/ sq. root of n) +- 1.96 (0.9772/7.75) = 3.226 or 2.732 For females: 4.411 +- 1.96 (1.3034/ 6.325) = 4.815 or 4.007 Hypothesis Tests Using a 5 % level of significance the test of independence for the variables: Gender and do they like the product; indicates that indeed gender has an influence on the outcome test of the participants. From the results, it is true that the female gender likes the snack more than the male gender. Therefore, it is expected that the females would be the most frequent buyers of the snack as compared to their male counterparts. Using the 5 % level of significance, the claim, there is difference between the mean amount males would pay and the amount females would pay is true. Evidently, the male gender is willing to pay more for the snack than the female gender by a difference of 0.4. Therefore, it would be more profitable selling to the male consumers than their female counterparts. The problems of getting survey data in the real world In the real world, marketing surveys are faced by various challenges (Werle, Wansink and Payne, 2015). These include the financial challenge and the ethical issues regarding human survey with humans as the object of test. Other challenges include approval to carry the test and the willingness of individuals to take part in the survey. Additionally, it would be more difficult separating reliable data from non-genuine survey results. Example of an actual product would be the McDonalds Snackwarp and some of the survey questions would include: Gender, age, which snack type would you prefer over the other and why, how much would be pay for the snack and why, do like the products- if No indicate why Source: Wilson et al. (2012) Conclusion Marketing research has no means of arriving to a marketing decision by itself; neither does it guarantee success in product marketing. Nonetheless, by conducting a systematic, analytical and objective marketing research, businesses can minimize the level of uncertainty in making decisions and increase the magnitude and probability of success. References Berenson, M., Levine, D., Szabat, K.A. and Krehbiel, T.C., 2012. Basic business statistics: Concepts and applications. Pearson Higher Education AU. Bryman, A. and Bell, E., 2015. Business research methods. Oxford University Press, USA. Burns, R.P. and Burns, R., 2008. Business research methods and statistics using SPSS. Duffey, K.J., Pereira, R.A. and Popkin, B.M., 2013. Prevalence and energy intake from snacking in Brazil: analysis of the first nationwide individual survey. European journal of clinical nutrition, 67(8), pp.868-874. Gentle, J.E., Hrdle, W.K. and Mori, Y. eds., 2012. Handbook of computational statistics: concepts and methods. Springer Science Business Media. Hair Jr, J.F. and Lukas, B., 2014. Marketing research. McGraw-Hill Education Australia. Kotz, S. and Johnson, N.L. eds., 2012. Breakthroughs in Statistics: Foundations and basic theory. Springer Science Business Media. Levine, D.M., Berenson, M.L. and Stephan, D., 1999. Statistics for managers using Microsoft Excel (Vol. 660). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Murakami, K. and Livingstone, M.B.E., 2016. Associations between meal and snack frequency and diet quality and adiposity measures in British adults: findings from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey. Public health nutrition, 19(09), pp.1624-1634. Werle, C.O., Wansink, B. and Payne, C.R., 2015. Is it fun or exercise? The framing of physical activity biases subsequent snacking. Marketing letters, 26(4), pp.691-702. Wilson, A., Zeithaml, V.A., Bitner, M.J. and Gremler, D.D., 2012. Services marketing: Integrating customer focus across the firm. McGraw Hill. Zikmund, W.G., Babin, B.J., Carr, J.C. and Griffin, M., 2013. Business research methods. Cengage Learning.

Vaccinations Successful small pox immunization

Question: write an essay onVaccinations. Answer: Introduction The term vaccine was initially coined by Louis Pasteur to facilitate the first ever successful small pox immunization done by Edward Jenner. The word vaccine is derived from the word, vacca which means cow as Jenner used the vaccinia virus (cowpox) for the prevention of smallpox infection. Generally, vaccination involves repeated exposure to antigens which cause disease under such conditions that it does not lead to the development of the disease. The main aim of the vaccine is to induce active immunity in the organism against that particular microbe so that on subsequent exposure to the same microbe, the body can call its sentry memory cells to fight off the infection and prevent disease induction. Usually, protective immunity involves neutralizing antibody secretion or memory production by cytotoxic T lymphocytes Th1 cells. In the current scenario, vaccines have been extended to facilitate immunization against fertilization and tumours. Basically, a vaccine is a suspension of a who le (inactivated or live) or fractionated viruses or bacteria that have been made non-pathogenic and given to an individual with the purpose of inducing immune response for the prevention of the disease. Properties of an ideal vaccine: It should be capable of providing long lasting immunity. Should also be able to induce both cellular (T cell mediated) and humoral (B cell mediated) immunity It should never induce hypersensitivity or autoimmunity in the administered individual Its production should be inexpensive making it easily accessible to the masses. It should be easy to store, transport and administer. It should also be safe and not cause disease in the individual. Tuberculosis Tuberculosis is a huge threat to public health. As per the world health organisation, an estimated 8.7 million people were infected with TB in the year 2011. The causative organism of this disease is Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The most effective and licensed vaccine against TB is Bacillus-calmette Guerin (BCG) which has been developed from mycobacterium bovis. This vaccine has a protective effect in adolescents and children against various early results of tuberculosis infection like systemic infections and meningitis. But it cannot protect against infections which become latent. Thus, it can leave the door open for TB to get reactivated. Thus the efficacy and reliability of the BCG vaccine in prevention of pulmonary diseases in adults has been under scrutiny. In this regard, other vaccine strategies have been explored such as (I) developing a more successful BCG vaccine and (II) using attenuated strains of mtb (III) using subunit vaccines which are based on recombinant mtb proteins and its design includes combination with adjuvants for eliciting a protective effect. BCG can be given anytime from the time of birth to 15 days of life. It is given along with the 0th dose of the polio vaccine which is administered orally. Usually BCG vaccine is available in an ampoule as a lyophilised powder. Buffered saline is used as a diluent to dissolve it for administration. Usually BCG vaccine stocks are stored in freezer compartments. Once prepared, it is advisable to use the vaccine within 2-3 hours and discard it after that. In India, where tuberculosis is endemic, children usually catch the germs early in their life and develop a primary complex. In younger children, around 3-5 years of age, the germ can spread leading to serious and severe forms tuberculosis affecting children like tuberculosis meningitis, military tuberculosis, disseminated tuberculosis, organ tuberculosis like urinary tract, kidney etc. Since BCG is a live vaccine, it induces a benign primary complex but the spread of infection is prevented by the previous dose of BCG immunity. Such children do not develop childhood tuberculosis, however in later stages if they get affected they will develop the disease. A second major option for developing better TB vaccines is dependent on the development of subunit vaccines. These vaccines are basically non-live or non-replicating vaccines which can be safely delivered to the human host regardless of the state of immunocompetence. Mostly, in case of TB, subunit vaccines are a combination of recombinant proteins mixed with adjuvants or attenuated viral vectors. The upcoming 10-15 years are very crucial for the development of TB vaccines. It should also be realised that these first generation vaccines are not designed for infection prevention or to eradicate TB. They just aim at delaying or inhibiting TB reactivation. Currently what is needed are better TB vaccines which can help in complete disease eradication and healthier lifestyle. Small Pox There should be no doubt that small pox has frequently changed the course of human history by countless deaths in the old as well as new world. Some of the greatest achievement in world history is the development of small pox vaccine by Edward Jenner and its global eradication. The overall mortality rate has been estimated to be around 30% and most deaths occurs during second week of illness. Small pox is generally caused by variola virus of Orthopoxvirus gene. Vaccinia induces both cellular as well as humoral immunity to individuals. Usually the NYCBOH strain is used either cultured from human embryonic lung cell culture or in African green monkey (vero) cells. This vaccines efficacy has not been checked in controlled studies though epidemiological data actually suggest that high level protection may persist till 5 years after vaccination with partial immunity surviving longer. Though there are several disadvantages to the same. Mild reactions include satellite lesion formation, muscle ache, fever, fatigue, nausea, headache rashes etc. at the site of vaccination. Individuals may also suffer from progressive vaccinia, which is defined as uncontrolled vaccine virus replication leading to a slow and progressive necrosis of the surrounding tissue. Inadvertent inoculation is another problem with smallpox vaccination. Usually occurs when the vaccinia virus gets transferred from vaccination site to other sites like mouth, eyes, nose etc.; other problems associated with vaccinia virus vaccination are eczema vaccinate, post-vaccine encephalitis, generalized vaccinia etc. The vaccinia virus Lister/Elstree strain was used during the world wide eradication of small pox. Immunogenicity of the vaccinia virus Lister has been evaluated with and without p53 human gene insert and compared to the modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) which is referred to as the gold standard of recombinant vaccinia virus in clinical development. With p53 gene insert it has been observed to show better product safety. On comparison with replication competent vaccinia virus, MVA has been shown to provide similar levels of gene expression even in case of nonpermissive cells. Animal models has shown MVA to be protective and immunogenic against different kinds of infectious agent inclusive of influenza, parainfluenza, immunodeficiency viruses, plasmodium parasites, measles virus, flavivirus etc. Waning of the herd immunity is also coming into picture thanks to the small pox vaccine. Earlier when maximum number of people were vaccinated, the minor population who did not receive the vaccine did not get affected by small pox. Now, as vaccination in the population level is decreasing the level of individuals without the proper vaccination is increasing, thus widening the window for smallpox to strike again and proliferate in its human hosts. Meningitis Meningiococcal disease is a severe illness caused by a bacteria named Neisseria meningitides. Meningitis is an infection of the brain lining and the spinal cord. The disease can spread though close contact (kissing or coughing) amongst people sharing the same household. 12 typed of N. meningitides have been found of which serogroups A, B, C, W and Y are responsible for causing the maximum cases of meningiococcal disease. The vaccine acting against meningiococcal disease are referred to as meningiococcal conjugate vaccine ACWY which basically acts against A, C, W, Y serogroups and meningiococcal polysaccharide vaccine (MPSV4). Usually the side effects to the meningiococcal vaccine are mild. However, they may include mild pain and redness at injection spot accompanied by slight fever. It may also lead to a severe allergic reaction which can be identified by hoarseness, itching, hives, redness, warm skin, paleness, difficulty in swallowing etc. The immunity provided by Menomune (MPSV-4) is approximately 3 years or even less in children under 5 years of age as it does not play any role in generation of T cells. Boosters are not recommended in this vaccine as they lead to reduced antibody response. Plague pestis has the ability to overcome host defense mechanisms. Btu a safe and effective pneumonic plague vaccine has been designed (Smiley, 2008): Killed whole cell plague vaccine: this vaccine was designed in 1897 and could protect against bubonic plague. The drawback was these vaccines were highly reactogenic and could not protect against bubonic plague. These vaccines also caused significant adverse reaction especially after administration of booster doses which are required to maintain the protection (Parent, 2005). Subunit plague vaccine: this vaccine was developed in 1952 which combined capsular proteins of F1 and Y pestis. Vaccination which combines purified LcrV and F1 proteins are able to protect mice against sub cutaneous Y. pestis. This combination vaccine of F1 and LcrV have been found to be more effective than compared to either subunit alone. It is also found to protect mice against pulmonary Y. pestis. Live attenuated plague vaccine: Live attenuation of organisms provide the theoretical advantage of priming immunity against many antigens simultaneously. Thus this can be used to reduce opportunity for circumvention by weapon engineers. It has also been observed that live attenuated vaccines can also protect humans against bubonic plague. The live attenuated vaccines are derived from the virulent Y pestis which contain mutation that have occurred spontaneously using the pigmentation locus (PGM). Disadvantages are that these vaccines are quite unstable and can also display virulence in non-human primates. They may also cause debilitating fever, lymphadenopathy and malaise in humans. Some groups have recently described attenuated strains of Y. pestis which have well defined genetic modifications which may play a useful role in live vaccinations. Vaccines with mutations in pla and pgm loci have sown to safely induce humoral immunity responses in monkeys. It has also been observed that s trains with mutations in the lpxM or pcm loci can protect mice against subcutaneous challenge. YopH mutant has shown to protect mice against pulmonary as well as subcutaneous challenge (Titball Williamson, 2004). Passive immunity against plague is received by the new-born rodents from the mothers immune system. So far studies have not been able to demonstrate any appreciable bactericidal activity of the immune serum of plague and suggest that the antibody mediated defense which has been observed against plague is a reflection of the collaboration between the cellular and humoral immune response mechanisms of the host. One other possible mechanism of antibody action can be via opsonic mechanisms (opsonisation is the process by which the viral antigens are coated by certain molecules which can be easily recognised by the neutrophils and other scavengers thus neutralizing them and removing them from immune circulation). LcrV expression has been seen on the bacterial surfaces and antibodies specific to the molecule LcrV help the neutrophils and macrophages phagocytose the Y. pestis . its being speculated that contact with the bacilli Y. pestis may activate macrophage apoptosis in vivo via Yop dep endent mechanism and the antibodies to LcrV suppress macrophage apoptosis and Yop translocation. There are not many studies available which shed light on the role of T cells and acquired cellular level immunity due to the difficulties in the methodology for studying cellular immunity. Nowadays there are a number of factors suggesting a role of cytokines like IFN gamma and TNF alpha. Pre-treatment with IFN gamma and TNF alpha has shown to restrict the intracellular replication. As it is known that, cellular and humoral immunity often use complementary defense mechanisms and understanding their clear potential for energy, the next generation vaccines for encountering disease like plague should work towards being prime in both cellular and humoral immunity. References Parent MA. (2005), Cell-mediated protection against pulmonary Yersinia pestis infection. Infect Immun., 73(11), 7304-7310. Smiley, ST (2008), Immune defense against pneumonic plague, Immunol Rev. 2008 Oct; 225: 256271. Titball RW,Williamson ED.(2004), Yersinia pestis (plague) vaccines. Expert Opin Biol Ther., 4(6), 965-973.